Bile salt hydrolase catalyses formation of amine-conjugated bile acids.

Bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract produce amino acid bile acid amidates that can affect host-mediated metabolic processes1-6; however, the bacterial gene(s) responsible for their production remain unknown. Herein, we report that bile salt hydrolase (BSH) possesses dual functions in bile acid metabolism. Specifically, we identified a previously unknown role for BSH as an amine N-acyltransferase that conjugates amines to bile acids, thus forming bacterial bile acid amidates (BBAAs). To characterize this amine N-acyltransferase BSH activity, we used pharmacological inhibition of BSH, heterologous expression of bsh and mutants in Escherichia coli and bsh knockout and complementation in Bacteroides fragilis to demonstrate that BSH generates BBAAs. We further show in a human infant cohort that BBAA production is positively correlated with the colonization of bsh-expressing bacteria. Lastly, we report that in cell culture models, BBAAs activate host ligand-activated transcription factors including the pregnane X receptor and the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. These findings enhance our understanding of how gut bacteria, through the promiscuous actions of BSH, have a significant role in regulating the bile acid metabolic network.

Oxygen-selective regulation of cyclic di-GMP synthesis by a globin coupled sensor with a shortened linking domain modulates Shewanella sp. ANA-3 biofilm.

Bacteria utilize heme proteins, such as globin coupled sensors (GCSs), to sense and respond to oxygen levels. GCSs are predicted in almost 2000 bacterial species and consist of a globin domain linked by a central domain to a variety of output domains, including diguanylate cyclase domains that synthesize c-di-GMP, a major regulator of biofilm formation. To investigate the effects of middle domain length and heme edge residues on GCS diguanylate cyclase activity and cellular function, a putative diguanylate cyclase-containing GCS from Shewanella sp. ANA-3 (SA3GCS) was characterized. Binding of O2 to the heme resulted in activation of diguanylate cyclase activity, while NO and CO binding had minimal effects on catalysis, demonstrating that SA3GCS exhibits greater ligand selectivity for cyclase activation than many other diguanylate cyclase-containing GCSs. Small angle X-ray scattering analysis of dimeric SA3GCS identified movement of the cyclase domains away from each other, while maintaining the globin dimer interface, as a potential mechanism for regulating cyclase activity. Comparison of the Shewanella ANA-3 wild type and SA3GCS deletion (ΔSA3GCS) strains identified changes in biofilm formation, demonstrating that SA3GCS diguanylate cyclase activity modulates Shewanella phenotypes.

Insights into the metabolism, signaling, and physiological effects of 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide monophosphates in bacteria.

2',3'-cyclic nucleotide monophosphates (2',3'-cNMPs) have been discovered within both prokaryotes and eukaryotes in the past decade and a half, raising questions about their conserved existence in cells. In plants and mammals, wounding has been found to cause increased levels of 2',3'-cNMPs. Roles for 2',3'-cNMPs in plant immunity suggest that their regulation may be valuable for both plant hosts and microbial pathogens. In support of this hypothesis, a plethora of microbial enzymes have been found with activities related to these molecules. Studies in bacteria suggest that 2',3'-cNMPs are also produced in response to cellular stress and modulate expression of numerous genes. 2',3'-cNMP levels affect bacterial phenotypes, including biofilm formation, motility, and growth. Within E. coli and Salmonella enterica, 2',3'-cNMPs are produced by RNA degradation by RNase I, highlighting potential roles for Type 2 RNases producing 2',3'-cNMPs in a range of organisms. Development of cellular tools to modulate 2',3'-cNMP levels in bacteria has allowed for interrogation of the effects of 2',3'-cNMP concentration on bacterial transcriptomes and physiology. Pull-downs of cellular 2',3'-cNMP binding proteins have identified the ribosome and in vitro studies demonstrated that 2',3'-cNMPs decrease translation, suggesting a direct mechanism for 2',3-cNMP-dependent control of bacterial phenotypes. Future studies dissecting the cellular roles of 2',3'-cNMPs will highlight novel signaling pathways within prokaryotes and which can potentially be engineered to control bacterial physiology.

Control of bacterial second messenger signaling and motility by heme-based direct oxygen-sensing proteins.

Bacteria sense and respond to their environment, allowing them to maximize their survival and growth under changing conditions, such as oxygen levels. Direct oxygen-sensing proteins allow bacteria to rapidly sense concentration changes and adapt by regulating signaling pathways and/or cellular machinery. Recent work has identified roles for direct oxygen-sensing proteins in controlling second messenger levels and motility machinery, as well as effects on biofilm formation, virulence, and motility. In this review, we discuss recent progress in understanding O2-dependent regulation of cyclic di-GMP signaling and motility and highlight the emerging importance in controlling bacterial physiology and behavior.

An O2-sensing diguanylate cyclase broadly affects the aerobic transcriptome in the phytopathogen Pectobacterium carotovorum.

Pectobacterium carotovorum is an important plant pathogen responsible for the destruction of crops through bacterial soft rot, which is modulated by oxygen (O2) concentration. A soluble globin coupled sensor protein, Pcc DgcO (also referred to as PccGCS) is one way through which P. carotovorum senses oxygen. DgcO contains a diguanylate cyclase output domain producing c-di-GMP. Synthesis of the bacterial second messenger c-di-GMP is increased upon oxygen binding to the sensory globin domain. This work seeks to understand regulation of function by DgcO at the transcript level. RNA sequencing and differential expression analysis revealed that the deletion of DgcO only affects transcript levels in cells grown under aerobic conditions. Differential expression analysis showed that DgcO deletion alters transcript levels for metal transporters. These results, followed by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry showing decreased concentrations of six biologically relevant metals upon DgcO deletion, provide evidence that a globin coupled sensor can affect cellular metal content. These findings improve the understanding of the transcript level control of O2-dependent phenotypes in an important phytopathogen and establish a basis for further studies on c-di-GMP-dependent functions in P. carotovorum.

In Vitro Measurement of Gas-Dependent and Redox-Sensitive Diguanylate Cyclase Activity.

Bacteria sense and respond to gaseous ligand changes in the environment to regulate a multitude of behaviors, including the production of the secondary messengers cyclic di-GMP. Gas sensing can be difficult to measure due to the high concentration of the oxygen in the atmosphere, particularly in redox-sensitive systems. Here, we describe a method for anaerobic quantification of cyclic di-GMP production which can be used to measure the impact of molecular oxygen, nitric oxide, and carbon monoxide on the catalysis of a diguanylate cyclase-containing protein and the possible pitfalls in the experimental procedure.

Spectrophotometric Method for the Quantification and Kinetic Evaluation of In Vitro c-di-GMP Hydrolysis in the Presence and Absence of Oxygen.

A spectrophotometric method to measure hydrolysis of the bacterial second messenger cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate is described for characterization of enzymes under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The method allows for obtaining all necessary data to calculate KM and kcat from reactions within a single 96-well plate that can be measured using a standard plate reader. The spectrophotometric assay has been used to measure the rates and obtain Michaelis-Menten parameters for the c-di-GMP phosphodiesterase DcpG with the sensor domain in various ligation states.

Strain-Specific Gifsy-1 Prophage Genes Are Determinants for Expression of the RNA Repair Operon during the SOS Response in Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium.

The adaptation of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium to stress conditions involves expression of genes within the regulon of the alternative sigma factor RpoN (σ54). RpoN-dependent transcription requires an activated bacterial enhancer binding protein (bEBP) that hydrolyzes ATP to remodel the RpoN-holoenzyme-promoter complex for transcription initiation. The bEBP RtcR in S. Typhimurium strain 14028s is activated by genotoxic stress to direct RpoN-dependent expression of the RNA repair operon rsr-yrlBA-rtcBA. The molecular signal for RtcR activation is an oligoribonucleotide with a 3'-terminal 2',3'-cyclic phosphate. We show in S. Typhimurium 14028s that the molecular signal is not a direct product of nucleic acid damage, but signal generation is dependent on a RecA-controlled SOS-response pathway, specifically, induction of prophage Gifsy-1. A genome-wide mutant screen and utilization of Gifsy prophage-cured strains indicated that the nucleoid-associated protein Fis and the Gifsy-1 prophage significantly impact RtcR activation. Directed-deletion analysis and genetic mapping by transduction demonstrated that a three-gene region (STM14_3218-3220) in Gifsy-1, which is variable between S. Typhimurium strains, is required for RtcR activation in strain 14028s and that the absence of STM14_3218-3220 in the Gifsy-1 prophages of S. Typhimurium strains LT2 and 4/74, which renders these strains unable to activate RtcR during genotoxic stress, can be rescued by complementation in cis by the region encompassing STM14_3218-3220. Thus, even though RtcR and the RNA repair operon are highly conserved in Salmonella enterica serovars, RtcR-dependent expression of the RNA repair operon in S. Typhimurium is controlled by a variable region of a prophage present in only some strains. IMPORTANCE The transcriptional activator RtcR and the RNA repair proteins whose expression it regulates, RtcA and RtcB, are widely conserved in Proteobacteria. In Salmonella Typhimurium 14028s, genotoxic stress activates RtcR to direct RpoN-dependent expression of the rsr-yrlBA-rtcBA operon. This work identifies key elements of a RecA-dependent pathway that generates the signal for RtcR activation in strain 14028s. This signaling pathway requires the presence of a specific region within the prophage Gifsy-1, yet this region is absent in most other wild-type Salmonella strains. Thus, we show that the activity of a widely conserved regulatory protein can be controlled by prophages with narrow phylogenetic distributions. This work highlights an underappreciated phenomenon where bacterial physiological functions are altered due to genetic rearrangement of prophages.

Generation of nucleotide-linked resins for identification of novel binding proteins.

Organisms use numerous nucleotide-containing compounds as intracellular signals to control behavior. Identifying the biomolecules responsible to sensing and responding to changes in signaling molecule concentration is an important area of research. However, identifying the binding proteins can be challenging when there is no prior information available about binding motifs. In this chapter, we describe a straightforward method to generate nucleotide-linked resins for use in pull-down experiments to identify binding proteins. The protocol outlined in this chapter also can be adapted to generate custom resins linked to other molecules of interest.

Binding of 2',3'-Cyclic Nucleotide Monophosphates to Bacterial Ribosomes Inhibits Translation.

The intracellular small molecules 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide monophosphates (2',3'-cNMPs) have recently been rediscovered within both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Studies in bacteria have demonstrated that 2',3'-cNMP levels affect bacterial phenotypes, such as biofilm formation, motility, and growth, and modulate expression of numerous genes, suggesting that 2',3'-cNMP levels are monitored by cells. In this study, 2',3'-cNMP-linked affinity chromatography resins were used to identify Escherichia coli proteins that bind 2',3'-cNMPs, with the top hits including all of the ribosomal proteins, and to confirm direct binding of purified ribosomes. Using in vitro translation assays, we have demonstrated that 2',3'-cNMPs inhibit translation at concentrations found in amino acid-starved cells. In addition, a genetically encoded tool to increase cellular 2',3'-cNMP levels was developed and was demonstrated to decrease E. coli growth rates. Taken together, this work suggests a mechanism for 2',3-cNMP levels to modulate bacterial phenotypes by rapidly affecting translation.

Cellular Effects of 2',3'-Cyclic Nucleotide Monophosphates in Gram-Negative Bacteria.

Organismal adaptations to environmental stimuli are governed by intracellular signaling molecules such as nucleotide second messengers. Recent studies have identified functional roles for the noncanonical 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide monophosphates (2',3'-cNMPs) in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. In Escherichia coli, 2',3'-cNMPs are produced by RNase I-catalyzed RNA degradation, and these cyclic nucleotides modulate biofilm formation through unknown mechanisms. The present work dissects cellular processes in E. coli and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium that are modulated by 2',3'-cNMPs through the development of cell-permeable 2',3'-cNMP analogs and a 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase. Utilization of these chemical and enzymatic tools, in conjunction with phenotypic and transcriptomic investigations, identified pathways regulated by 2',3'-cNMPs, including flagellar motility and biofilm formation, and by oligoribonucleotides with 3'-terminal 2',3'-cyclic phosphates, including responses to cellular stress. Furthermore, interrogation of metabolomic and organismal databases has identified 2',3'-cNMPs in numerous organisms and homologs of the E. coli metabolic proteins that are involved in key eukaryotic pathways. Thus, the present work provides key insights into the roles of these understudied facets of nucleotide metabolism and signaling in prokaryotic physiology and suggest broad roles for 2',3'-cNMPs among bacteria and eukaryotes. IMPORTANCE Bacteria adapt to environmental challenges by producing intracellular signaling molecules that control downstream pathways and alter cellular processes for survival. Nucleotide second messengers serve to transduce extracellular signals and regulate a wide array of intracellular pathways. Recently, 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide monophosphates (2',3'-cNMPs) were identified as contributing to the regulation of cellular pathways in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. In this study, we define previously unknown cell processes that are affected by fluctuating 2',3'-cNMP levels or RNA oligomers with 2',3'-cyclic phosphate termini in E. coli and Salmonella Typhimurium, providing a framework for studying novel signaling networks in prokaryotes. Furthermore, we utilize metabolomics databases to identify additional prokaryotic and eukaryotic species that generate 2',3'-cNMPs as a resource for future studies.

Heme-Edge Residues Modulate Signal Transduction within a Bifunctional Homo-Dimeric Sensor Protein.

Bifunctional enzymes, which contain two domains with opposing enzymatic activities, are widely distributed in bacteria, but the regulatory mechanism(s) that prevent futile cycling are still poorly understood. The recently described bifunctional enzyme, DcpG, exhibits unusual heme properties and is surprisingly able to differentially regulate its two cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP) metabolic domains in response to heme gaseous ligands. Mutagenesis of heme-edge residues was used to probe the heme pocket and resulted in decreased O2 dissociation kinetics, identifying roles for these residues in modulating DcpG gas sensing. In addition, the resonance Raman spectra of the DcpG wild type and heme-edge mutants revealed that the mutations alter the heme electrostatic environment, vinyl group conformations, and spin state population. Using small-angle X-ray scattering and negative stain electron microscopy, the heme-edge mutations were demonstrated to cause changes to the protein conformation, which resulted in altered signaling transduction and enzyme kinetics. These findings provide insights into molecular interactions that regulate DcpG gas sensing as well as mechanisms that have evolved to control multidomain bacterial signaling proteins.

Differential ligand-selective control of opposing enzymatic activities within a bifunctional c-di-GMP enzyme.

Cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP) serves as a second messenger that modulates bacterial cellular processes, including biofilm formation. While proteins containing both c-di-GMP synthesizing (GGDEF) and c-di-GMP hydrolyzing (EAL) domains are widely predicted in bacterial genomes, it is poorly understood how domains with opposing enzymatic activity are regulated within a single polypeptide. Herein, we report the characterization of a globin-coupled sensor protein (GCS) from Paenibacillus dendritiformis (DcpG) with bifunctional c-di-GMP enzymatic activity. DcpG contains a regulatory sensor globin domain linked to diguanylate cyclase (GGDEF) and phosphodiesterase (EAL) domains that are differentially regulated by gas binding to the heme; GGDEF domain activity is activated by the Fe(II)-NO state of the globin domain, while EAL domain activity is activated by the Fe(II)-O2 state. The in vitro activity of DcpG is mimicked in vivo by the biofilm formation of P. dendritiformis in response to gaseous environment, with nitric oxide conditions leading to the greatest amount of biofilm formation. The ability of DcpG to differentially control GGDEF and EAL domain activity in response to ligand binding is likely due to the unusual properties of the globin domain, including rapid ligand dissociation rates and high midpoint potentials. Using structural information from small-angle X-ray scattering and negative stain electron microscopy studies, we developed a structural model of DcpG, providing information about the regulatory mechanism. These studies provide information about full-length GCS protein architecture and insight into the mechanism by which a single regulatory domain can selectively control output domains with opposing enzymatic activities.

RNase I Modulates Escherichia coli Motility, Metabolism, and Resistance.

Bacteria are constantly adapting to their environment by sensing extracellular factors that trigger production of intracellular signaling molecules, known as second messengers. Recently, 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide monophosphates (2',3'-cNMPs) were identified in Escherichia coli and have emerged as possible novel signaling molecules. 2',3'-cNMPs are produced through endonucleolytic cleavage of short RNAs by the T2 endoribonuclease, RNase I; however, the physiological roles of RNase I remain unclear. Our transcriptomic analysis suggests that RNase I is involved in modulating numerous cellular processes, including nucleotide metabolism, motility, acid sensitivity, metal homeostasis, and outer membrane morphology. Through a combination of deletion strain and inhibitor studies, we demonstrate that RNase I plays a previously unknown role in E. coli stress resistance by affecting pathways that are part of the defense mechanisms employed by bacteria when introduced to external threats, including antibiotics. Thus, this work provides insight into the emerging roles of RNase I in bacterial signaling and physiology and highlights the potential of RNase I as a target for antibacterial adjuvants.

π-Helix controls activity of oxygen-sensing diguanylate cyclases.

The ability of organisms to sense and adapt to oxygen levels in their environment leads to changes in cellular phenotypes, including biofilm formation and virulence. Globin coupled sensors (GCSs) are a family of heme proteins that regulate diverse functions in response to O2 levels, including modulating synthesis of cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP), a bacterial second messenger that regulates biofilm formation. While GCS proteins have been demonstrated to regulate O2-dependent pathways, the mechanism by which the O2 binding event is transmitted from the globin domain to the cyclase domain is unknown. Using chemical cross-linking and subsequent liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, diguanylate cyclase (DGC)-containing GCS proteins from Bordetella pertussis (BpeGReg) and Pectobacterium carotovorum (PccGCS) have been demonstrated to form direct interactions between the globin domain and a middle domain π-helix. Additionally, mutation of the π-helix caused major changes in oligomerization and loss of DGC activity. Furthermore, results from assays with isolated globin and DGC domains found that DGC activity is affected by the cognate globin domain, indicating unique interactions between output domain and cognate globin sensor. Based on these studies a compact GCS structure, which depends on the middle domain π-helix for orienting the three domains, is needed for DGC activity and allows for direct sensor domain interactions with both middle and output domains to transmit the O2 binding signal. The insights from the present study improve our understanding of DGC regulation and provide insight into GCS signaling that may lead to the ability to rationally control O2-dependent GCS activity.

Exploring the Links between Nucleotide Signaling and Quorum Sensing Pathways in Regulating Bacterial Virulence.

The survival of all organisms depends on implementation of appropriate phenotypic responses upon perception of relevant environmental stimuli. Sensory inputs are propagated via interconnected biochemical and/or electrical cascades mediated by diverse signaling molecules, including gases, metal cations, lipids, peptides, and nucleotides. These networks often comprise second messenger signaling systems in which a ligand (the primary messenger) binds to an extracellular receptor, thereby altering the intracellular concentration of a second messenger molecule which ultimately modulates gene expression through interaction with various effectors. The identification of intersections of these signaling pathways, such as nucleotide second messengers and quorum sensing, provides new insights into the mechanisms by which bacteria use multiple inputs to regulate cellular metabolism and phenotypes. Further investigations of the overlap between bacterial signaling pathways may yield new targets and methods to control bacterial behavior, such as biofilm formation and virulence.

Structural Insights into Oxygen-Dependent Signal Transduction within Globin Coupled Sensors.

In order to respond to external stimuli, bacteria have evolved sensor proteins linking external signals to intracellular outputs that can then regulate downstream pathways and phenotypes. Globin coupled sensor proteins (GCSs) serve to link environmental O2 levels to cellular processes by coupling a heme-containing sensor globin domain to a catalytic output domain. However, the mechanism by which O2 binding activates these proteins is currently unknown. To provide insights into the signaling mechanism, two distinct dimeric complexes of the isolated globin domain of the GCS from Bordetella pertussis ( BpeGlobin) were solved via X-ray crystallography in which differences in ligand-bound states were observed. Both monomers of one dimer contain Fe(II)-O2 states, while the other dimer consists of the Fe(III)-H2O and Fe(II)-O2 states. These data provide the first molecular insights into the heme pocket conformation of the active Fe(II)-O2 form of these enzymes. In addition, heme distortion modes and heme-protein interactions were found to correlate with the ligation state of the globin, suggesting that these conformational changes play a role in O2-dependent signaling. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) of the full-length GCS from B. pertussis ( BpeGReg) and the closely related GCS from Pectobacterium carotovorum ssp. carotovorum ( PccGCS) confirmed the importance of an ordered water within the heme pocket and two distal residues (Tyr43 and Ser68) as hydrogen-bond donors. Taken together, this work provides mechanistic insights into BpeGReg O2 sensing and the signaling mechanisms of diguanylate cyclase-containing GCS proteins.

RNase I regulates Escherichia coli 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide monophosphate levels and biofilm formation.

Regulation of nucleotide and nucleoside concentrations is critical for faithful DNA replication, transcription, and translation in all organisms, and has been linked to bacterial biofilm formation. Unusual 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide monophosphates (2',3'-cNMPs) recently were quantified in mammalian systems, and previous reports have linked these nucleotides to cellular stress and damage in eukaryotes, suggesting an intriguing connection with nucleotide/nucleoside pools and/or cyclic nucleotide signaling. This work reports the first quantification of 2',3'-cNMPs in Escherichia coli and demonstrates that 2',3'-cNMP levels in E. coli are generated specifically from RNase I-catalyzed RNA degradation, presumably as part of a previously unidentified nucleotide salvage pathway. Furthermore, RNase I and 2',3'-cNMP levels are demonstrated to play an important role in controlling biofilm formation. This work identifies a physiological role for cytoplasmic RNase I and constitutes the first progress toward elucidating the biological functions of bacterial 2',3'-cNMPs.

Mechanism and Role of Globin-Coupled Sensor Signalling.

The discovery of the globin-coupled sensor (GCS) family of haem proteins has provided new insights into signalling proteins and pathways by which organisms sense and respond to changing oxygen levels. GCS proteins consist of a sensor globin domain linked to a variety of output domains, suggesting roles in controlling numerous cellular pathways, and behaviours in response to changing oxygen concentration. Members of this family of proteins have been identified in the genomes of numerous organisms and characterization of GCS with output domains, including methyl accepting chemotaxis proteins, kinases, and diguanylate cyclases, have yielded an understanding of the mechanism by which oxygen controls activity of GCS protein output domains, as well as downstream proteins and pathways regulated by GCS signalling. Future studies will expand our understanding of these proteins both in vitro and in vivo, likely demonstrating broad roles for GCS in controlling oxygen-dependent microbial physiology and phenotypes.

Oxygen-Dependent Globin Coupled Sensor Signaling Modulates Motility and Virulence of the Plant Pathogen Pectobacterium carotovorum.

Bacterial pathogens utilize numerous signals to identify the presence of their host and coordinate changes in gene expression that allow for infection. Within plant pathogens, these signals typically include small molecules and/or proteins from their plant hosts and bacterial quorum sensing molecules to ensure sufficient bacterial cell density for successful infection. In addition, bacteria use environmental signals to identify conditions when the host defenses are weakened and potentially to signal entry into an appropriate host/niche for infection. A globin coupled sensor protein (GCS), termed PccGCS, within the soft rot bacterium Pectobacterium carotovorum ssp. carotovorum WPP14 has been identified as an O2 sensor and demonstrated to alter virulence factor excretion and control motility, with deletion of PccGCS resulting in decreased rotting of a potato host. Using small molecules that modulate bacterial growth and quorum sensing, PccGCS signaling also has been shown to modulate quorum sensing pathways, resulting in the PccGCS deletion strain being more sensitive to plant-derived phenolic acids, which can function as quorum sensing inhibitors, and exhibiting increased N-acylhomoserine lactone (AHL) production. These findings highlight a role for GCS proteins in controlling key O2-dependent phenotypes of pathogenic bacteria and suggest that modulating GCS signaling to limit P. carotovorum motility may provide a means to decrease rotting of plant hosts.